Philosophy questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Philosophy questions - Essay ExampleThe other key responsibility of a CFO is to seminal fluid out with such financial statements that accurately and in a transparent way reflect on the financial health of the firm (Korey 72). Though, the drafting of the financial reports happens to be the responsibility of all the executives, it is the CFO who has the eventual determining influence on such financial reports. So, while drafting such financial reports, I will always try not to be influenced by any other concern and be above board and professional in the pull in of my duties.One serious responsibility that I will be required to perform will be to honestly and accurately detail the board, if I smell out that the CEO tends to differ with me regarding any describe protocol, and ones views are misplaced and faulty. No doubt, the board and the investors will look up to me for facts, and not basing my reporting on facts will amount to being unethical on my

Eco-tourism in China and France Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Eco-tourism in China and France - Research Paper ExampleTourism is a chop-chop growing industry in well-nigh countries in the world, including both developing and developed countries (Eijgelaar, Peeters, & Piket, 2008 Euromonitor International, 2011). Tourism as a business has grown approximately go percent per year since the end of World War Two. (Matias, Nijkamp, & Sarmento, 2009) Much of that business is in the form of domestic tourism, but international pleasure turn does flummox a significant portion of that market (Lohmann, 2004). The needs of the international tourist differ from the needs of the domestic tourist. Monitoring and forecasting the international tourism train independently of the domestic tourism penury is vital in proper demand management.The analysis of tourism demand is the measurement of this growth forecasting this demand is vital in managing it and profiting from it. However, an analysis of the tourism industry across the entire world is too too larg e and is outside the scope of this research instead, the focus is on one example of a developing nation though with a thriving tourist industry, China, and one example of a developed nation in addition with a very well-established tourist industry, France. A type of tourism common to both of these nations is eco-tourism, and so eco-tourism will be utilise as the model to equalize management strategies between the two nations. Characteristics and Modeling of Tourism DemandTourism demand can be measured in a variety of ways. The most commonly used benchmark for tourism demand is the number of tourists arriving in the country or to the location Chan, Lim, & McAleer, 2005). Another method, which is generally used for economic models, is the income receipt from those tourists. A combination of these measurements is considered best to get a true picture of the demand for tourism infrastructure if there is a situation where a large number of tourists are arriving, but their expenditure while traveling is low, it would be more sensible to focus on budget vacations than on five-star facilities, for example. The two issues at hand, the number of arrivals and the money being spent, are separate good poser will involve consideration of them both as individual problems and as a a combination. A wide variety of models exist for forecasting and analyzing the demand of tourism and new techniques are constantly being introduced. No single modeling technique has been found to be the most accurate overall the best choice of modeling technique seems to depend significantly on the situation (Song & Li, 2008). For example, travel motivation theory suggest that the reasoning behind the trip is the most important in predicting the demand for tourism to a specific location (Goh, Law, & Mok, 2008). combat-ready destination image indexes (DDII) are collections of news stories about a destination that can affect a consumers choice of vacation destination, by adding a retrace of re asoning about recent events to the consumers decision-making process (Stepchenkova & Eales, 2011). Using the DDII can be more helpful to managing demand in a nation that is frequently shown on the international news, but less so in a case where fewer people are aware of current events at that location. Scenario planning is used to predict events, both positive and adverse, that could effect tourism demand. Ideally, scenario planning will also forecast the magnitude of this effect.

DELL Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

DELL - Essay ExampleThe most disappointing thing was the location of the launch as the Chinese got the first experience being the aim market for Dell evidently, this itself was substandard for the people in the west (Camp 2012). All the same, the phone looked splendid with a rare design moreover, it had a built-in receiver and ran on an Open Mobile System. Once people heard about these and other features, the interest watery slowly naturally, for a leading computer technology company, one would expect features such as 3G circuitry in an android phone manufactured in China. nigh of the consumers also lamented about the lack of Wi-Fi in the smartphone in fact, the only type of wireless network that the device had was Bluetooth. The touchscreen was better off with a screen proclamation greater than that of the iPhone appreciably, the camera was standard but not top class. However, to add on to the problems, the device lacked a favorable keyboard, which was disappointing as the iPhone and android Samsung phones launched out front it had the same problem thus people expected an improvement on this model.Generally, the Dell Mini i3 smartphone was a downfall for the company and the only reason very few considered it was because of impressive features such as Micro SD card slot or the USB port. Essentially, Dell China and China Mobile faced the greatest argufy then, due to a lot of criticism however, Dell took almost all the blame because this was their first smartphone and it seems China Mobile was not in support of origination the project because no updates have come up (Camp 2012). Decisively, Dell requires a new and unique smartphone to redeem the company as a whole and that ill-tempered division, definitely, the new gadget, better than the latest iPhone or android Samsung phones will meet the customers needs and act as a foundation for corporate social debt instrument and

Business systems in Japan and China Essay Example for Free

Business systems in japan and china EssayIntroduction subsequently the World War Two, japan embarked on a journey of revitalising its miserliness. The fast industralisation process is nonhing short of spectacular. japans basic infrastructure was basically destroyed in the war and she grew from a war-torn give tongue to to a world track saving in a few decades. This requires good company and authorities governance, in order to achieve this result. Japan is similarly a major(ip) technology and export hub in Asia and she is currently the world third largest economy by gross(a) Domestic Product. (World Bank, 2014). Prior to the economic squargon away of Deng Xiao Peng, the Chinese government activity has total control of all the extract possess Enterprises (SOEs) under the communist system. It is a very highly centralized system that plainly the Chinese State government has power and control over it.(Laaksonen, 1988)Under the reformation policy, individuals ar allowe d to trade and sell surplus products in rural heavens and small assembly linees are allowed in urban or city. This marks the start of the Chinas Socialist market economy. As a result of the absolved door policy, Chinese economy grew from a third world country to the second largest economy of the world in less than four decades. (World Bank, 2014) Despite the owing(p) differences of these two economy, the fact that its governance and cultures are deeply settle by the idea of Confucianism. (Chan, 1986) Hereby, in this article, discussion will be separated into two split that are based on the similarities and differences between the two business systems.Differences1. Keiretsu Vs Reform PolicyIn Japan, Keiretsu formed the largest business grouping and its one of the key contri saveors to the Japans economy which usually employed Japanese style of management and system. Zaibatsu was the forerunner of Keiretsu which are family run and it is the main business system before bet on W orld War. There are two types of Keiretsu namely horizontally organized Keiretsu and vertically organized Keiretsu. In horizontally organized Keiretsu, capital and human vision are closely knitted together and cross directorships and holding of stock among group members are not uncommon. The cross-holding of stock among the top 6 corporate group was as high as 24% (Tokyo Business Times, 1989) in the late eighties. This allows the group to be very closeand strong. Some of the examples of company with this structure are Mitsubishi and Sumitomo. (Okumaru, 1976).The governing of company are handed to professionals or agents to prevent dispute among group members. In vertically organized Keiretsu, it is formed by a enormous parent company.She has its own supply distributorships and suppliers. Every go and operations of the company follows a top to down process so as to control inventories and manufacturing quality. umpteen small and medium sized enterprises in japan utilize this syst em. Some of the example of such(prenominal) company are Sony and Toyota. In 1979, China started her reform syllabus after the initiating of economic open door policy by Deng Xiao Ping. The state government vows to liberalise and modernised Chinas key industry similar agriculture, technology and defence. More autonomy are devoted to the State Owned Enterprise to manage their own division. For example The State Owned Enterprises are given the rights to form their company structure in accordance to the needs of leaner production process or market maximization. Hence, workers are now fit to train and change job with respect to their interest and expertise. This highly promotes the effectiveness of the State Owned Enterprises. (Lichtenstein, 1993)The state government also implements the use of Profit and Loss weightlift (yinkuibaokan) whereby a portion of the profits are contributed to the state government and the remaining profit can be kept by the State Owned Enterprise. Chinas s tate government also undertake a few other methods to reform, this includes the downsizing of the State Owned Enterprises , setting up of stock replacement in Shanghai and Shenzhen and transformed some important industry to shareholding companies so that it can trade. All in all, this gives rise to the socialist market economy in China whereby capitalist economy way of managing the economy is enforced. 2. Developing its own industries Vs Foreign Direct investment Ever since the stand by World War, Japan has decided to call on an export driven economy, and the Japanese have been fast to recover its economy by competing fiercely in the ever increasingly saturated market. The products they are nettled out are of good reliability and they often undercut its competitors by a huge margin to win the contract.As illustrated in the case of Hitachi at a sales presentation in 1985, Hitachi stressed to undercut its competitors severely. (Fallows 1993) Japan owed its rapid industralisation process to the huge domestic exports. The export ranged from the early days textile toautomobiles and later on, high technologies products such as semiconductors. Japan invested heavily on research and using to create high value products to make it desirable to the world. As a result of the severe undercutting of competitors. Japans enterprise have to come out with several ways to enhance efficiency to ensure profitability. Toyota created a system called Just-In-Time (JIT) which emphasize on the redundancy of keeping live inventory. (Uno, 1987) It was first created in the 1950s and later slowly dispersed into the different industries and plants in Japan in the 1960s and 1970s. It requires close and collaborative relations with all suppliers for it to work.However, with good implementation, it can ensure lean production with little slack and good flow process. This process brings about the envy of the industrialised world peculiarly in the United States. Other industrialised nati ons tried to emulate the success of JIT, but not always with positive results due to the poor implementation. Japanese companies also used Total Quality Control(TQC) in manufacturing. It is first coined by Professor William Demming of New York city but it is the Japanese that utilize it.The ideas of Total Quality Control is to have no or little tolerance for rework. Reworking a product are deemed as a wastage of time. By adopting a do it once, do it well approach, further time and cost can be saved to make the production lean. After the 1979 economic reforms by the Chinese state government, the state government allow Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) to enter into Chinese market.It is the movement of long terminal figure foreign financing that allows a shareholding of at least 10% of the State Owned Enterprises. This usually includes the transfer of technology and know-hows to the host country from the Multi-Nationals Companies (MNCs). As a result of the transfer of technology, the host country in this case the State Owned Enterprises will have gained insights on the production process. Hence, further research and development by the State Owned Enterprises is possible.Also, in 1979, the state government created four Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in Guangdong and Fujian province to encourage the facilitation of Foreign Direct Investment that mainly foreign investment will stay in this four zones. The state government realizes that by creating four zones is not enough to open up the market. Therefore, in the 1980s wholly-owned foreign enterprises are allowed and also more east coast ports are opened up to encourage foreign trades and investment.China State government viewedForeign Direct Investment as a very important catalyst to improve its economy. Subsequently, foreign enterprises are given the same intercession as a State Owned Enterprise and the joining of World Trade Organisation in November 2001 makes a very huge milestone in Chinas economic history. Due to rising manufacturing cost Japan industries, Japan has begun to pour Foreign Direct Investment into China to cut cost. As evidenced by (Kunii et al., 2002) , during the period of first six months of 2002 , Japanese firms concluded deals of $3.15 billion.This goes to show the importance of Foreign Direct Investment for both countries in a win-win situation. Japan can benefit from the low production cost and China can benefit from the capital inflow and technology transfer. As of 2012, China is the leading Foreign Direct Investment in the world. (Perkowski, 2012).3. Socialist Market Economy Vs Capitalist Market EconomyThe socialist market economy is the lonesome(prenominal) feigning that are used by the Peoples Republic of China (PRC). It is based on the dominance of State Owned Enterprises and maintaining a free open market, its origins can be traced from the Chinese economic reforms introduced under Deng Xiao Ping. During the early stage of economic reform in China, socialism a re deemed as the basis for the reform, and therefore has to adopt capitalist techniques to survive.It is also known as the social capitalism despite adopting the free market system of capitalism. (Schweickart, 2006) Japan adopted the system of capitalist market economy which got its influence from her western counterparts. Its a system that encourage free trading in the market in the forms of products, shares and commodities. Despite Japan uses Keiretsu in their business systems, it is clam up by large using a capitalist system. The need for consumption of luxury products and export of domestic shows the use of capitalist system. Similarities1. Intervention of government bodiesHistorically in Japan history since Meiji Restoration, Japanese government has always played a very important role in the industrialisation. To be able to play catch-up with the western nations, the government deemed the intervention necessary. It also enable the government to be strengthened through the len ding of private funds and invest it in key industries such asshipbuilding, communication in the Meijis government. The intervention of government in financing benefited the queen-size groups of zaibatsu and later on Keiretsu. After the Second World War, the Japanese government once again realised the importance of state support for the companies and economies to grow quickly. (Johnson, 1982) In recent times, Japanese government agencies such as Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) and Ministry of Finance (MOF) have been actively participated in business by giving funds and supports to industry that are of intent national interest.On the other hand, big business can exert huge influence on the political scene by endorsing political panorama that are beneficial to the interest of the big corporation. With respect to Japan, Korean government intervention of chaebols (big conglomerate) are largely similar to Japan. In the earlier days, the Korean government invested he avily and provide financial aids to chaebols such as Lucky Goldstar and Samsung. With the strong backing of the government, these companies are able to flourish. (Song, 1990) By 1990s, the reforming of State Owned Enterprises especially small and medium state enterprises became a top priority for the Chinese state government.After a carefully study by the state government, a new reform system formed under the name of the Regulations for Transforming Managerial Mechanisms of the State Owned Enterprises ( Liberation Daily, 1992). This includes of fourteen kinds of power to instill self-management. Even though, its a move by the Chinese state government to liberalized State Owned Enterprises. But, government steps by steps intervention of the process is still very much needed. Especially, during the early periods of reforms, they are many uncertainties and fluctuations in the market that requires government intervention to ensure the reformations process is smooth and steady.2. Confuci anism InfluenceAll the major East Asian management system have been influenced heavily by the Confucian tradition. (Oh, 1983). This includes China, South Korea and Japan which has some olden Chinese co-relation. It does not only has heavy influence towards these countries culturally but also economically. For example In Japan, huge emphasis is put on the seniority in both oeuvre or at home. Similarly, likewise for Korea. Respect are to be given to elders or person with high seniority. Individualisms and competitiveness are notpart of the instruction of Confucianism.In the economy of these East Asian countries, they are generally competitive and placed a lot of emphasis on individual actualization. Though, these countries are influence deeply by Confucianism, its more applicable to the management level which is at micro level. At macro levels, the government efforts and communitarianism could be the explanation for the competition in the world market.ConclusionIn conclusion, this a rticle has discussed about the similarities and differences between Japan and China. There are three main differences that are discussed in this article. Firstly, its Japans Keiretsu and Chinas reform policy. Japans Keiretsu was the predecessor of zaibatsu and its the dominant force of Japans economy. Deng Xiaoping pushes for economic reforms and turned its communist economy to a socialist economy. Secondly, Japan invested heavily in the research and development of technology as to become world major exports nations. Through the process of undercutting its competitors, Japans enterprises utilize Just in Time process and Total Quality Management to ensure high efficiency and lean production cycle. On the other hand, China relied on Foreign Direct Investment to boost its economy.In the process of Foreign Direct Investment, not only it creates jobs for the country but also learn about foreign technologies through technology transfer. Lastly, the Chinese employed a socialist economic mo dels which is often referred as state capitalism whereby the government still practiced one party communism. Japan on the other hand, support a free trade market which is similar to the capitalist systems in the west. The article also discusses the importance of government or state intervention of the economy.For Japan, the government provides good infrastructure and financial aids to industry that are deemed promising. In china, the Chinese state government slowly guides its economy through intervals of reforms to prevent the reformation for being too fast or slow. Lastly, Confucianism plays a big role in influencing the management style of Japanese and Korean organization but not so much in China State Owned Enterprises.ReferencesBusinessweek, (2002). In Japan , China is Sexy. pp.22-23.Chan, W. (1986). Chu Hsi and Neo-Confucianism. world-class ed. Honolulu Universityof Hawaii Press. Johnson, C. (1982). MITI and the Japanese miracle. 1st ed. Stanford, Calif. Stanford University Pr ess. Laaksonen, O. (1988). Management in China during and after Mao in enterprises, government, and party. 1st ed. Berlin W. de Gruyter. Liberation Daily, (1992). Regulations for Transforming Managerial Mechanisms of the State Owned Enterprises. Lichtenstein, N. (1993). Enterprise reform in China. 1st ed. Washington, DC (1818 H St., NW, Washington 20433) Legal Dept., World Bank. Oh, T. (1983). A proportional Study of the Influence of Confucianism on Japanese Korean, and Chinese Management Practices. 1st ed. Honolulu Academy of International Business Asia-Pacific Dimensions of International Business. Okumaru, H. (1976). Six Largest Business Groups In Japan. 1st ed. Tokyo Diamond Publishing. Perkowski, J. (2012). China Leads In Foreign Direct Investment. online Forbes. Available at http//www.forbes.com/sites/jackperkowski/2012/11/05/china-leads-in-foreign-direct-investment/ Accessed 12 Aug. 2014. Schweickart, D. (2006). China Market Socialism or Capitalism?. p.137. Song, B. (1990). T he rise of the Korean economy. 1st ed. Hong Kong Oxford University Press. Tokyo Business Time, (1989). Intimate Links With Japans Corporate Groups. pp.14-19. Uno, K. (1987). Japanese industrial performance. 1st ed. Amsterdam North-Holland. World Bank, (2014). Gross Domestic Product 2013. online Available at http//databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP.pdf Accessed 31 Jul. 2014. Word Count 2503 words

HR information system Essay Example for Free

HR information system EssayHuman resource Management is a fundamental part of an organization. The use of technology for the progress of benignant resource management has risen extensively from the last decade. In todays organizations technology greatly influences the managerial processes and techniques in the human resources department. Information engineering has proven itself useful in every area of human life. It is become essential for organizations around the creation to use march on technology in departments of development, nutriment recruitment and various others. The large range of applications provided by IT have become indispens fitted for any operation and have proven themselves a quality change and time saving necessity for the organizations desiring development and success. In the human resources management, technology is not only responsible for bringing positive changes but it has also brought a name of issues and challenges for organizations. The most majo r challenge that a company faces in the process of adopting and implementing these technologies is the restructuring of the HR modules. It is important for the effective functioning of the technologies to be aligned with the HR functions. The creation of a correct management atmosphere is important for the existence of successful and authentic organizations. The interrogation encompasses the challenges and issues that come in the path of organizations while implying IT techniques on HR functions. Research QuestionHow does the execution of instrument of IT effect the human resource management and what advantages or disadvantages an organization faces when applying programs such as SAP? AimThe fair game of this research is to determine the use of information systems in assemble to integrate Information technology in Human imagination functions and also to bug outline the place of software programs namely SAP in human resource management and how it is effective in accomplishing this merger between technology and various Human imagery areas. Objectives to Achieve the Aim1. To outline the importance of introducing Information Technology in Human Resources. 2. To discuss how Information Technology affects the progress of human resource management. 3. To set forth the role that SAP plays in implementing technology in human Resources. 4. To explain the processes by which SAP software influences the Human Resource functions of an organization. 5. To determine what are the aspects which promise the success of the implementation of Information Technology techniques in Human Resource Management. 6. To review the benefits and drawbacks that comes with the introduction of information systems in human resources. 7. To determine the functions of Information Technology within an organization. 8. To identify the nature of challenges and problems that can come in consequence of applying Information Technology techniques across Human resource functions. 9. To instructi on how by the friend of several techniques and methods Human Resources can evade these issues and challenges. 10. To summarize how effective is a merger between human resource and information technology to an organizations development.Background of ResearchThe research is based on the fact that how much advanced technology has become an important part of the business world in modern times. It is not possible for organizations to function properly in any department without the assistance of Information Technology and the tools it provides. Manual methods of management processes and transactions in firms are fast dying and being replaced by faster and surer methods of achieving various tasks that are required to be done. The old techniques cannot compete in todays fast paced world and every institute should be ready to make the reforms and accept the changes that are brought upon their implementations.They need to hire occupyees who are efficient in expert operations or familiar wi th the advanced equipment and take assistance from IT related trainingcourses like SAP to make their employees aware of the forwardings made in the processes of managing every aspect in a company and making them proficient in bringing those methods in their practice to improve the companys standards and boost its growth. Organizations which do not take advantage from this wave of technology and do not learn to balance on it are sure to be submerged in the growing rate of the use of technology. The Human Resource department has also not lagged behind in this technological advancement marathon. Most organizations have been employ one form or other of Human Resource information system over the last decade.In a research conducted in 2002 it has been build that seventy percent of the organizations in Europe use Internet or Intranet to provide Human Resource services to employees. Surveys done in the United nation alone in 2005 by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development r evealed that seventy seven percent of companies use HRIS. In a similar research done by Cranfield School of Management in 2003 it found out an even higher number of companies, at eighty two percent, that use HRIS. A human resource information system is able to give various performances ranging from the simple storage of data and communication of information to the entangled process of transactions. With the advancement of technology the functions provided by HRIS have increased and enhanced. HRIS is designed and improved to be beneficial to the functions of Human Resources, line managers, and the entire organization on the tout ensemble.If an overall study is done without bias the use of Information Technology has much than advantages than problems. It has brought speed, accuracy, efficiency and fewer chances of downfalls in company processes and most importantly has brought a decrease in HR costs. It has also made possible to make Human Resource information available to managers and employees, enabling them to perform uncomplicated human Resource tasks themselves. The implementation of HRIS in order to cut down the cost rates of a company to lessen the burden of transaction and administration on Human Resource functions can lead to a modification in the constitution of HR and allow the function to also play an strategic part in the company. on that point can be various reasons due to which a company introduces HRIS to influence its functions such as the need to bring improvement to company processes or tighten cost to bring developments in communication and the growth of customer services.Rationale of the researchThis research has been done to outline in detail to show how the advancement of technology has affected Human Resources. It has raised standards of recruitment, training, data storage and retrieval and performance management. Before the HR recruiting teams had to rely on the print material, namely newspapers, to line ads about jobs get applican ts for positions that need to be filled. More methods like networking were also utilise but that prevented the human resource recruiters to post jobs on a number of locations and also there was no method to make the ads visible to millions of people. Technology has made the method of recruitment more effectual and makes a much greater impact on HR than the old techniques.Training methods have also improved due to technology. In the past eld there was were no slipway to come in contact of company information and training programs from far way locations. The training of HR workers in virtual classrooms enables trainers to train larger song of people than before. Data storage and retrieval has also had a positive effect by the technological advances. The virtual files are more easily handy and flexible in matters of changing data jibe to the wish of the HR professionals. It has become easy to monitor the performance of employees and also to receive feedback from the employees for the progress of the organization. lit ReviewEmma Parry (2010) determines in the Benefits of technology in Human Resources Management that the use of technology has grown considerably in the last few years in the Human Resource department. She enhances how the capabilities and performances in the Human resource have gown because of the introduction of HRIM. It leads to take Human resource management to a whole new level. It allows it to emerge with a strategic role after the implementation of HRIM. Johnson and Gueuta (2011) states in Transforming HR through Technology that human resources is becoming a more technology based pr0ofession over the years.In most companies people think of Human Resources department more as a portal than a person. accord to the recent researches it has been determined that companies who properly use the technologies provided by Human Resources are far successful and advanced than the ones who dont.Julie Bulmash (2012) describes Human Resource technology has advanced over the past decade and discusses the importance of technology on the role of human Resource professionals. And how do they make the function of Human Resources much more efficient, smooth and speedy. MethodologyMethodology refers to the methods of collection data that have been used in the research. Here it will be briefly explained what kind of data collecting methods have been applied and the reason behind choosing that type of method. This research will be using the qualitative research methods for the collection of data.Data collection MethodsTo employ the qualitative research approach the questionnaire method of data collection has been chosen. A questionnaire has been framed in that method in order to collect data by providing the employee with a questionnaire and heshe are asked to answer the questions given. The questions can be multiple choices or open ended questions. They decide how exactly the analysis of job can be done. This approach is quite effective because people would carefully to put anything in writing without thinking. A questionnaire was given to the employees to determine their opinions on various topics such as Information Technology, hospitality, finance, manufacturing, retail, and defense. The feedback gave a clear view on which areas need to be worked on. Based upon it and a theoretical comprehension of the field of Human resources it became easier to point out the problems that should be discussed on the research and which havent been brought to light before. Qualitative researchThis method of research is a primary source of research. It is exploratory and is used in order to achieve comprehension of fundamental reasons, motivations and opinions. It gives insight to assess the nature of the problem or assist in building of ideas or possible action for the secondary research process or quantitative research method. Qualitative research is used also for uncovering of inclinations peoples thoughts or opinions and ru minate harder to get to the root of a problem by that. The methods for qualitative data collecting vary according to the form of techniques used.Whether they are structured or non structured.conceptual FrameworkHuman resources technology has evolved from the use of paper work and pencil to computers electronic databases and human resource information systems. Internet based technology has compete an important role in enabling HR to decrease transactional activities and focus more on playing a strategic role in organizations. The main(prenominal) areas that HRIS system works on are recruitment, employee administration, pension administration, health and safety, data collecting, saving and organizing, compensation and benefits administration, management of the company, employment equity and payroll interface.The functions of HRIS are to create and organize records of employees, reporting of work performances, Hr planning and forecasting, and management of talent, strategic alignment and development of decision power. The role of HR workers has also changed considerably according to advancement of technology. The acquire proficiency now in Human resource technology and its delivery, personal credibility, and vast business knowledge. Current technology will hide to bring advancements in HR performances and will continue to focus on the value that HR brings to an organization.ConclusionThe human resource sector has made many advances due to technology in the past era and will continue to do so with the changes that are brought by the constant upheaval in the IT world of making things more effective and fast than before. HRIS has made various areas of HR extremely accessible and successful in accordance to the fast paced world of today. The methods of recruiting employees, managerial organization, data storage, training of professionals and more areas have undergone major changes due to the integration of Information Technology in the world of Human Resources. I f these changes havent been apply and training programs hadnt been designed to create technological awareness and familiarity it wouldve been a big setback to organizations. It has risen the standards of professionals working in human resources and the organizations have been able to get productivity, creativity, innovation and progress in finances on a whole newlevel.HR technology is still going through this maturation of technology as they must use newer and refined methods of generating an organizations human capital. Human resources would need to continue adopting the latest technological trends in order to keep up with advancements and provide more efficient functions. It will need to use technology to redefine their areas in which they work to derive more productivity. The maturation in the usage of portals and intranets and other virtual tools will bring a more great impact on Human resource performance in the near future.BibliographyStorey, J. (Ed.). (2007). Human resourc e management A critical text. Cengage Learning EMEA. Ulrich, D. (2013). Human resource champions The next agenda for adding value and delivering results. Harvard Business Press. Bohlander, G., Snell, S. (2006). Managing human resources. Cengage Learning. Lawler, E. E., Mohrman, S. A. (2003). HR as a strategic partner what does it take to make it happen?. Human Resource Planning, 26(3), 15-29. Varian, H. R., Farrell, J. V. (2004). The economics of information technology An introduction. Cambridge University Press. Goo, J., Kishore, R., Rao, H. R., Nam, K. (2009). The Role of Service take aim Agreements in Relational Management of Information Technology Outsourcing An Empirical Study. Mis Quarterly, 33(1).

Fruit Processing Industry In Himachal Pradesh Commerce Essay

Fruit treat Industry In Himachal Pradesh Commerce EssayThe purpose of this paper is to study the reaping touch on pains in Himachal Pradesh. This study focuses on triad major(ip) functional areas of industry i.e. name qualification utilisation, procurement and distribution system and marketing problems. The study finds that plant capacity is chthonianutilised and there is world-shaking association (X2 (1)=8.713,pConsumption of processed result products started since time immemorial. The production was mainly for private household consumption and commercial production started real late. The formal set up of product treat for commercial purpose started with the demand arising from defence forces. Dietary habits in the urban areas are rapidly chthonicgoing changes because of the factors deal pretermit of reposition installment for fresh fruits at home, scarcity of time and posit availability of these products. The pattern of traditional social structure shows that w omen stay at home and men folk are at work, but with the emergence of nuclear families and increased number of work women, there is increased need for ready to eat or fast foods. Fruits are an central nutritional requirement of human beings, as these fruits non solely meet physical needs to slightly extent but also supply vitamins and minerals which improve the quality of diet and maintain health. It is therefore, necessary to ensure their availability throughout the year in fresh, processed or preserved forms.World over there has been remarkable change in agri-food business during 1980s and 1990s. This was due to greater concentration in art little inputs and food distribution, the increasing importance of food quality and safety, and intensifying role of information and logistic technology. The primitive production of fruits in the world is around 370 trillion MT India ranks commencement in the production of fruits at 32 Million MT which is around 8 percent of world fruit production. The international business deal of processed fruit products is around US$ 9200 million. The installed capacity of fruits and ve let downables processing (FPO Licensed units) is 2.1 million tonnes (MOFPI) and the take aim of processing of fruit and ve micturateables in India is 2.02 percent. The low aim of processing whitethorn be ascribed to lack of processable quality of fruits, seasonal nature of the fruits, and poor infrastructural and post harvest facilities.Fruits are processed into various products such as fruit juice and concentrates, canned fruits, dehydrated fruits, Jams, and Jellies etc. According to the Food and Agriculture organization (FAO, 2006) major fruit processing countries of the world are Brazil, USA, Italy, Spain, Mexico, France, Turkey and Philippines. The level of processing as percentage of total fruit production in the major fruit processing countries is as follows UK (88%), Malaysia (80%), Philippines (78%), Brazil (70%), USA (60-70%), Israel (50%), Thailand (30%), and China (23%). The total area under fruit in Himachal Pradesh is astir(predicate) 2.07 Lac hectares with a production of about 5.00 Lac MTs of all kinds of fruits. Apple is the major fruit explanation for more than 40% of total area under fruits and about 88% of total fruit production. There are 36,845, micro, small, forte and monstrous scale enterprises of which 444 are in medium and large scale registered with the Department of Industries Government of Himachal Pradesh with an investment of Rs. 10408.41 crore and employment of about 2.42 lakh persons. (board of directors of Industries Govt. Of HP)Himachal Pradesh experiences diverse agro-climatic conditions varying from sub-tropical to humid temperate and cold deserts. The topographical and latitudinal differences accompanied by fertile and well irrigated land makes it convenient to cultivate temperate to sub-tropical fruits.The give in has been classified basically into two categories namely, indust rially developing areas and Industrially backward areas. The blocks of Poanta Sahib and Nahan in district Sirmour, Nalagarh and Dharmpur in district Solan, excluding backward panchayats as notified by the governing body of Himachal Pradesh from time to time fall in the category of industrially developing areas. The rest of the state including industrially backward panchayats and industrially developing areas referred above fall in the category of industrially backward areas. Tribal areas of the state, as notified from time to time carry been treated as tax-free Industrial zone.In her effort in processing the huge production of fruits, Himachal Pradesh established its first experimental canning unit in Shimla in the year 1959-60, and its production capacity was enhanced in 1961-62 (Directorate of Horticulture, 2005, Rattan, et.al 2000, Parmar, 2002). The main objective was to utilize the unmarketable surplus of fruits in the state as also to Standardize recipes for the preparation of products of horticulture production in the state, provide community canning service to the prospective entrepreneur, Educating and training in the preservation of fruit and ve dragable at household level.In commit to execute a project of world bank the state government incorporated, Himachal Pradesh Produce Marketing and Processing Corporation Limited (hpmc) in 1974 as a subsidiary of Himachal Pradesh Agro. Industries Corporation Limited. The project also helped in imparting training to the officials of hpmc and state Department of Horticulture in modern post-harvest handling system. Private participants in this industry are also producing fruit products at micro, small, medium and large scale. The total fruit and vegetable processing capacity in the state is 55, 000 tones/annum. (Economic Survey 2003-04, hpmc, Directorate of horticulture HP, 2005).The micro, small, and medium scale under micro, small and medium enterprises Act. 2006 (MSME Act 2006) classifies the enterprises in India as followsFigure 1. compartmentalization of enterprisesSr. noClassification of industrial enterprisesInvestment limit in plant and machinery of manufacturing enterpriseInvestment limit of equipments in service enterprises1micro enterprisesUp to Rs. 25 LakhUp to Rs. 10 Lakh2 baseborn enterprisesAbove Rs. 25 Lakh and up to Rs. 5 CroreAbove Rs. 10 Lakh and up to Rs. Crore3Medium enterprisesAbove Rs. 5crore and up to Rs. 10 CroreAbove Rs. 2 crore and up to Rs. 5 Crore4Large enterprises (not classified under MSME)More than Rs. 10 CroreMore than Rs. 5 CroreSource MSME Act. 2006OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYTo study the status of plant capacity utilisation in fruit processing industry in HP,To examine the procurement system of fruits and distribution system of fruit products, andTo study the problems brass instrumentd by the industry in marketing its products.In order to fulfil the objectives following hypothesis has been formulated for testing.HypothesisH01= there is no blood amidst p lant capacity utilisation and scale of operation of fruit processing industry.H01a= there is no relationship between plant capacity utilisation and type of technology employed.H02= Fruit procurement system is positively link to the fruit products distribution system.H03= there is no relationship between the marketing problems faced by the units and barter of the produce.METHODOLOGYData Sources The data has been gulled from twain primary and secondary sources. Primary data has been collected by administering a structured questionnaire for the producers of fruit products in Himachal Pradesh. Sources of secondary data are Directorate of Horticulture HP, Directorate of industries HP, National Horticulture Board, HPMC, NCAER and journal and magazines from distinguishable libraries.Sample A sample of seventy fruit processing units has been selected from all over the state on convenient try basis. This sample comprises of 31 Micro scale, 15 Small scale, 11 Medium scale and 13 Large s cale units.Questionnaire A structured questionnaire has been developed to collect the information personally regarding, general information about producers, product they produce, plant capacity utilisation and the technology, procurement and distribution system and marketing problems. The reliability of the questionnaire ranges between Cronbach alpha .657 to .821.Analysis Statistical techniques like Mean, Standard deviation, Percent, rank and Loglinear analysis has been use for the analysis. Rank has been calculated by assigning rank one for the near valuable variable and last for least important variable. The weights are also assigned as one to the most important and two to the second important variable and so on, thus finally variable with least final score shall be the most important variable. Loglinear analysis has been used to analyse three categorical variables i.e. scale of operation (four categories, Micro, Small, Medium and Large Scale units), case of technology (two cate gories, Traditional technology and Modern technology) and plant capacity utilisation (two categories, Underutilised and amply utilised). Those units that engage not updated their technology for last ten years are put under the traditional technology category and units that have updated their technology at heart ten years are put under modern technology category.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONFruit Processing Industry Plant Capacity recitation and Type of engine roomThere are seventy fruit Processing Units out of which 44.3% are Micro Scale, 21.4 % Small Scale 15.7% Medium Scale and 18.6% are in large Scale. plank 1 Sample Characteristics, n=70 Figure 2.Type of unitNPercentageMicro Scale3144.3Small Scale1521.4Medium Scale1115.7Large Scale1318.6 bring70100Major products The major products produced in the state are jam 85.7%, jelly 41.4%, candy 40%, sauce 63.8%, ketchup 62.9%, squash 77.1%, juice 82.9% and pickle 62.9%. Other products produced occasionally are Murabba, chutney and marmalad e accounting for 8.6 % of the total produce.Working profile It is necessary to know whether seasonal nature of the fruits affects the operations of producers. Data regarding number of busy/ relax working(a) months in a year, total working long time in a month and total working hours a day show that 70 % of respondents have 1-4 busy working months in a year and rest 30 % have 4-8 busy working months in a year. During busy months 11.4% respondents work for 15-20 days in a month and 88.5% work between 20-25 days in a month. All the respondents work for 8-12 hours in busy working month.A majority of respondents (70%) face slack period for 4-8 months and 30% face slack period for 1-4 months. During slack period 82.9 % work for 15-20 days in a month and rest 17.1% work for 20-25 days in a month. 11.4% respondents work for 1-4 hours and 88.6% work for 4-8 hours during slack period.Table 2. Working profile of the fruit processing units in Himachal PradeshVariablesBusy working monthsSlack working MonthsN*PercentageN*PercentageWorking months1-4497021305-8213049709-12Working days15-20811.45882.921-256288.91217.126-31Working hours1-4811.45-86288.69-1270100N*-Number of RespondentsTable 3(a). Scale of Operation, Plant Capacity Utilisation and type of engineering (Data Information)NcasesValid70Out of rangea0Missing0Weighted Valid70CategoriesScale of Operation4Plant Capacity Utilisation2Type of Technology2a. Cases rejected because of out of range factor value.Table 3(b). K-way and Higher-Order EffectsKdflikelihood RatioPearsonNumber of IterationsChi-SquareSig.Chi-SquareSig.K-way and higher order effectsa11564.349.000100.057.000021014.801.14014.559.1492333.174.3663.170.3663K-way effectsb1549.548.00085.498.00002711.626.11411.389.1230333.174.3663.170.3660a.Tests that K-way and higher order effects are zero.b.Tests that K-way effects are zero.The initial end product from loglinear analysis shows that there are 70 cases and three categorical variables, the first variable has f our categories (scale of operation) and other two variables have two categories each plant capacity utilisation and type of technology respectively) . In Table K-way and higher order effects Likelihood ratio and Pearson chi-square for K=1 are significant representing that removing this effect will significantly affect the fit of the model. However K=2 and 3 are not significant, therefore removing these effects will not affect the fit of the model.Table 3(c). Step SummaryStepaEffectChi-SquarecdfSig.Number of iterationsGenerating ClassbCapacity*Technology*Scale6.7949.658Deleted Effect 1Capacity*Technology8.0061.00522Scale12.8833.0082a. At each step, the effect with the largest significance level for the Likelihood Ratio Change is deleted, provided the significance level is larger than .050.b. Statistics are displayed for the best model at each step after step 0.c. For Deleted Effect, this is the change in the Chi-Square after the effect is deleted from the model.Table 3(d). Partial A ssociationsEffectsdfPartial Chi-squareSig.Number of IterationsScale*Capacity32.310.5112Scale*Technology31.152.7652Capacity*Technology17.848.0052Scale312.883.0052Capacity119.431.0002Technology117.234.0002The K-way and higher order effects for K=2 shows combined two way effect (i.e. Scale*Technology, Scale*Capacity, Capacity*Technology) which is not significant, However Step summary and partial association analysis secernate down the combined effect into individual effects, which is significant for Capacity*technology. This is also supported by Z statistics as the important interaction. The effect size in loglinear analysis (Capacity*Technology) for Odds ratios is calculated as 5.5. This ratio indicates that odds for full plant capacity utilisation in units using modern technology are 5.5 times the odds for units using traditional technology. The one way interaction (the main effect) of scale, capacity and technology is also significant, indicating that one way interaction is importa nt for this model. Therefore, the analysis seems to reveal fundamental difference between units using traditional and modern technology units with traditional technology are more likely to face problem of underutilisation than the modern technology.Table 3(e). Goodness of Fit testsChi-SquaredfSig.Likelihood Ratio6.7949.569Pearson6.8959.648Table 3(b). deals with the backward elimination. This indicates that deleting three way interaction (Capacity*Technology*Scale ) will not have significant effect on our model, however deleting two way interaction(Capacity*Technology), and one way interaction (Scale ) will have significant effect on our model.The non-significant value of likelihood ratio and Pearson Chi-Square statistics indicate that the expected values generated by the model are not significantly different from the discovered data. In other words, the model is a good fit of data.Table 3(f). Chi-Square TestsValuedfAsymp.Sig.(2-sided pick out Sig. (2-sided) rent Sig. (1-sided)Point ProbabilityPearson Chi-Square8.713a1.003.005.005 tenaciousness Correctionb6.9331.008Likelihood Ratio8.0061.005.008.005Fishers Exact Test.008.005Linear-by-Linear Association8.589c1.003.005.005.005N of Valid Cases70a.1 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.37.b. Computed only for a 22 table.c. The standardized statistic is 2.931.The reasons for underutilization of plant capacity are seasonal nature of fruits and lack of infrastructure facility 87.2%, low demand 84.3%, frequent power cuts 27.1%, working capital problem 10% and lack of trained and skilled labour 5.8 %. It has been found that when products are change directly to the consumers, the returns are higher than when sold to commission agents, the returns are also fair when sold to government and co-operatives.Table 3(d). on partial associations reveals that the significance level of scale*capacity is .05 indicating that scale of operation and plant capacity utilization are not associat ed significantly, supporting our null hypothesis (H01). Therefore the results show that under utilization or full utilisation of plant capacity is not related to the fact that the plant is in micro, small, medium or in large scale of operation.Pearson X2 (1)=8.713,p procurement of Fruits and dispersion of Fruit ProductsThe industry has to rely on multiple sources for procuring fruits. A few units are having contractual relationship with farmers for procuring fruits, however they have to offer finance to the farmers for maintaining the orchid and repayment is done at the time of harvesting. The selection of farmers and the produce is a challenging task for the processers. In most cases optic inspection of the fruits size, damage level and freshness determines whether to accept the delivery. The selection of farmer generally depends on the volume of produce and leadership. Government of Himachal Pradesh has introduced Market Intervention proposal (MIS) for procuring fruits. Himacha l Pradesh Horticultural Produce Marketing and Processing Corporation Ltd (HPMC a state government undertaking) and State department of Horticulture procure fruits which are not suitable for merchandising in the open market. The processing units may face problem of poor or no packaging, inadequate quality and quantity in the process of procurement. mass of respondents want to acquire fruits from nearest sources. However if supply is inadequate, then they have to move to other places for getting their demand fulfilled. The findings reveal that eighty percent respondents get fruits at block level, 77.1 percent at tehsil level, 81.4 percent at district level, 55.7percent at state level and 10 percent (mostly in large scale) has to get fruits from outside the state.The growers get good price for their produce if producers directly approach them. The fruit procurement system of the industry shows that nearly 87 percent respondents get fruits directly from the growers. The respondents also use other procurement channels like commission agents 61.1 percent, contractors 68.5 percent and government 20 percent.Sale of Produce All respondents carry on their produce in the local market, besides this 86.6 percent sell in neighbouring districts, 70 percent in other states, 4.3 percent each for defence supply, tourism, airlines and for exports. The major reasons for undertaking fruit processing business are availability of fruits locally (57%), cheap labour (54.2%), high market demand (22.7 %) produce because their product is soft saleable and high returns of investment (67.1%)Table 4 (a). relationship between procurement of fruits and distribution of fruit productsFruit Procurement System and fruit Products Distribution SystemStrong Fruit Products Distribution System(FPDS) sum totalYesNoFruit Procurement System (FPS)FPS helps strengthen FPDSCount242549 evaluate Count27.321.749.0% deep down FPS49.0%51.0%100.0%% within FDPS61.5%80.6%70.0%% of Total34.3%35.7%70.0%Std. Residua l-.6.7FPS does not helps strengthen FPDSCount15621Expected Count11.79.321.0% within FPS71.4%28.6%100.0%% within FDPS38.5%19.4%30.0%% of Total21.4%8.6%30.0%Std. Residual1.0-1.1TotalCount393170Expected Count39.031.070.0% within FPS55.7%44.3%100.0%% within FDPS100.0%100.0%100.0%% of Total55.7%44.3%100.0%Table 4 (b). Chi-Square tests (Fruit Procurement System and fruit Products Distribution System)ValuedfAsymp.Sig.(2-sidedExact Sig. (2-sided)Exact Sig. (1-sided)Point ProbabilityPearson Chi-Square3.002a1.083.116.070Continuity Correctionb2.1621.142Likelihood Ratio3.0891.079.116.070Fishers Exact Test.116.070Linear-by-Linear Association2.960c1.085.116.070.048N of Valid Cases70a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 10.84.b. Computed only for a 22 tablec. The standardized statistic is -1720(X2 (1)=3.002,pThe Pearson chi square statistics tests if the two variables are independent. The table 4(b) shows that Pearson chi square is not significant at .05 revelation that fruit procurement system is independent of fruit products distribution system (FDPS). Therefore accepting the null hypothesis (H02) that there is no significant relationship between fruit procurement system (FPS) and fruit products distribution system (FDPS). The results imply that a good raw material procurement system may not have effect on strengthening final product distribution system.Distribution Channels Different types of Distribution channels are used by the fruit processing industry. All units sell directly to consumers and through retailers, 97 percent also sell through commission agents, 49 percent through wholesalers, and 53 percent through distributors.The factors considered while selecting distribution channels are, deep analysis of target market by 35.7 percent units, channels like by consumers 82.1 percent, potential good working of channel members 90 percent and all respondents consider credit worthiness of channel members before selecting them.The responses on computer storage and cold storage facility indicate that all the respondents need storage facility but only 24.3 percent have their own cold storage facility. The reasons given for not having cold storage facility are , plant located in the cold region 48.6 percent, immediate transportation available 35.7 percent, government cold storage facility available on hire, 8.6 percent , private cold storage facility available on hire 75.7 percent and lack of funds for 72.9 percent units.Marketing Problems of Fruit Processing Industry in Himachal PradeshThe marketing and other problems faced by the consumers are shown in table 5. The problems in order of their seriousness are, Poor roads, Poor quality of goods, Higher cost involved, wishing of market, lack of transport facility, Lack of publicity, Lack of storage, Lack of cold storage, Lack of packaging material, Non availability of credit, Lack organised marketing system, Lack of procurement system, Perishable nature of pr oducts, space from roads, Only limited consumers, Distance from city/town, and Ignorance about market.Table 5. Marketing problems ranked on the basis of importanceSr. No.VariableFinal ScoreFinal Rank1Lack of transport facility343V2Lack of storage506VII3Lack of cold storage533VIII4Poor roads119I5Lack of market294IV6Ignorance about market1119XVII7Poor quality of raw material203II8High running cost involved264III9Lack of publicity416VI10Perishable nature of products893XIII11Limited consumers/Lack of demand1079XV12Lack organised marketing system776XI13Lack of packaging material632IX14Lack of procurement system836XII15Non availability of credit689X16Distance from roads1067XIV17Distance from city/town1096XVIAll the respondents have acquired Food Products Order (FPO) as quality standard. And all units adhere to the norms of the standard. However during visit to these units the researcher observed that in some of the units raw material was not properly stored and semi finished products (lik e pulp, chopped fruits etc.) were lying uncovered, also utensils and flour was not clean.Table 5.1(a). Relationship of sale of produce with marketing problemsSale of Produce and Marketing ProblemsFace Marketing ProblemsTotalYesNoSale of ProduceIncrease in saleCount81523Expected Count12.210.823.0% within Sale of Produce34.8%65.2%100.0%% within Face Marketing Problems21.6%45.5%32.9%% of Total11.4%21.4%32.9%Std. Residual-1.21.3 change magnitude in saleCount291847Expected Count24.822.247.0% within Sale of Produce61.7%38.3%100.0%% within Face Marketing Problems78.4%54.5%67.1%% of Total41.4%25.7%67.1%Std. Residual.8-.9TotalCount373370Expected Count37.033.070.0% within Sale of Produce52.9%47.1%100.0%% within Face Marketing Problems100.0%100.0%100.0%% of Total52.9%47.1%100.0%Table 5.1(b). Chi-Square tests (Sale of Produce and Marketing Problems)ValuedfAsymp.Sig.(2-sidedExact Sig. (2-sided)Exact Sig. (1-sided)Point ProbabilityPearson Chi-Square4.491a1.034.043.031Continuity Correctionb3.4761. 062Likelihood Ratio4.5341.033.043.031Fishers Exact Test.043.031Linear-by-Linear Association4.427c1.0355.043.031.022N of Valid Cases70a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expect

The General Adaptation Syndrome Psychology Essay

The General Adaptation Syndrome Psychology EssayStress is inescapably present in the lives of all(prenominal) living organism. While some line bunghole be beneficial, too much of it is almost always disadvantageous. Frequently the word filter out is used to find the imposition of an undesirable mental or material state through unwieldy or overwhelming circumstances. We tend to think of emphasis as a burden that we carry around with us. One individual might perceive that they ar under an enormous amount of nidus because of multiple impending deadlines, go another might feel hard put out because their house is not clean and unexpected guests be on their way. Despite the predominantly negative rendering above, stress itself is not necessarily bad. In fact, stress is an adaptive process without which our survival would be seriously compromised. Moderate stress post plain get beneficial do, such as improving cognitive position to facilitate meeting multiple deadlines and increasing energy supply to muscles to quickly clean the completed house in a matter of minutes. However, too much or protract stress nominate result in a variety of prejudicial make on two physiological hold out and cognitive processes.DefinitionIn order to properly understand the effects of stress on cognition, as measured by performance in a variety of mazes, we must first come to an understanding of what stress is. At its core, stress is can be defined as the rejoinder to a threat (or perceived threat) against homeostasis, the tendency of a system to maintain a stable internal environment. Living organisms, including piece and rodents, are open systems which work to maintain homeostasis despite being constantly bombarded by numerous impertinent environmental insults.HomeostasisThe concept of homeostasis was initially conceived by the french physiologist Claude Bernard in1854. He used the term milieu intrierur to severalize the ability of the internal environment (primarily the line of credit in Bernards time) of the body to compensate for and re-equilibrate in reaction to the external environment 1,2. However, it was Walter Cannon who developed the concept of homeostasis. He proposed that the body maintained steady state conditions through multiple cooperative self-regulating mechanisms. One phenomenon find by Cannon was that organisms respond to a threat by releasing epinephrine (aka adrenaline) from the adrenal myelin thereby increasing the bodys heart rate, respiration, and blood twitch while mobilizing glucose stores and inhibiting non-essential functions such as digestion and reproduction. This phenomenon is the prototypical sympathetic sickening system (a branch of the autonomic nervous system) resolution, for which Cannon coined the term fight-or-flight reply 3. Simply put, when confronted with a threat, an organism, through the narrowing of bodily functions and mobilization of available energy, is primed to respond actively, whether through fleeing or fighting. Thus, the native contribution of Walter Cannon to the definition of stress was that in response to an environmental insult threatening the internal steady stated, the body initiates the sympathetic response to maintain homeostasis and ultimately increment survival.General Adaptation SyndromeThe aid major contributor to stress research was endocrinologist Hans Selye. Selye was working to discover a new hormone by injecting ovarian extracts in to rats and observing the physiological effects. He noted several changes by and by injection of this extract, including the 1) enlargement of the adrenal gland, 2) the shrink of the thymus and lymph nodes and 3) the presence of gastric ulcers 4. While he initially thought these effects were direct effects of a novel hormone, through additional control experiments he discovered that the injection of numerous agents, physical injury or tear down excessive exercise produced the comparable reliable effec ts 5. Emphasizing the non-specificity of this response, Selye called these effects the General Adaptation Syndrome initially and later used the term stress to describe it. He further defined stressors as the factors or agents that triggered the stress response. In addition, Selye established the role of glucocorticoids, steroid hormones excreted from the adrenal cortex, in the stress response. Furtherto a greater extent, Selye described that prolonged pic to stressors (and the stress response) can lead to illness or disease.SummaryThe combined work of Walter Cannon and Hans Selye formed the basis of stress research. Both concur that when confronted with disruptive environmental factors, the body generated an adaptive response aimed at re-establishing homeostasis within the internal environment. Cannon cerebrate on the sympathetic branch of this response, while Selye focused on the hormonal (i.e., endocrine) branch of this response. Modern thinking has modified the conceptualizati on of stress, as it turned out to be not quite as truthful as originally thought. Importantly it is no longer thought that stress is non-specific as the magnitude and more subtle characteristics of the stress response are alter based on the type of stressor, the individuals perception of the stress and ability to cope. The following basic features of stress can be gleaned from this historical workStressors are each event, experience or environmental insult that threatens or is perceived to threaten homeostasisStress is an adaptive response to re-establish and maintain homeostasisStress is ultimately mediated by two branchesThe sympathetic nervous system via release of epinephrine from the adrenal medullaThe endocrine system via release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortexThese definitions and characteristics are more conducive to scientific study than the layman use of the term stress which does not distinguish between the trigger and the response, as described in the ente rprise of this section. Thus, the definitions above will be utilized in the following sections. This chapter will further develop these basic concepts and present 1) an overview of the stress response, 2) descriptions of the different types of stressors, 3) the effects of two acute and continuing stress on learning and memory and 4) practical details on how to deal with the nuances of stress in behavioral testing.THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ACUTE accentuate RESPONSEWhen a stressor is encountered, the brilliance triggers a physiological response, aimed at coping with the stressor and restoring homeostasis 6. This response is governed by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Both of these systems are always actively eng senior(a) in maintaining homeostasis, but when posed with a disruption to an organisms internal environment, the HPA axis and SNS go into overdrive. When stressors are encountered several central nervous system (CNS) stru ctures are activated to initiate the stress response, including the preganglionic sympathetic neurons of the spinal cord in addition to several reasonstem and limbic fore adept structures 7. These structures and so recruit neural and neuroendocrine systems to initiate a stress response, culminating with the secretion of adrenal glucocorticoids (GCs) and epinephrine, the principle mediators of this adaptive response.The Sympathetic Nervous SystemTwo primary pathways are activated by stressors within the SNS, the headland norepinephrine neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) and the sympathetic adrenomedullary circuitry. M both, but not all stressors result in norepinephrine release from the LC, which ultimately contributes to the majority of circulating NE levels as advantageously as numerous adaptive behaviors 8,9. Activation of the sympathetic adrenomedullary circuitry via preganglionic neurons results in the release of the excitative neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) onto p ostganglionic neurons and the adrenal medulla. Sympathetic postganglionic neurons primarily release of norepinephrine directly onto various target organs. On the other hand, activation of the adrenal medulla results in the synthesis and release of epinephrine into the circulation and validatingly onto target organs. Target organs activated by these catecholamines neurotransmitters correspond directly to the symptoms of the fight-or-flight response, including change magnitude heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, pupil dilation, and inhibition of digestion, liver, kidney and gall bladder function.The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (Figure 1 HPA axis from Lupien 2009 Review)The present chapter will focus on the endocrine branch of the stress response. While the activation of the sympathetic nervous system is a key part of stress, many of the effects of stress on learning and memory go through been shown to be dependent on GCs. The secretion of adrenal GC hormones is unde r the stimulatory drive of the medial parvocellular neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. In response to stressors, brainstem and limbic forebrain regions activate these neurons to secrete corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin into the hypophysial circulation to stimulate the anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) into the encircling(prenominal) circulation which ultimately results in the release of GCs from the adrenal gland 10. GCs are carried to every organ via the circulation to allow for a coordinated adaptive response between the brain and bodily functions. GCs mobilize energy, suppress immune and inflammatory responses, inhibit bone and muscle growth and reproductive function as well as increase attention and impact learning and memory processes 11. GCs also regulate further CRH and ACTH release via negative feedback loops by binding receptors in the pituitary, PVN, hippocampus (HPC) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) to inhibit further GC release and to return the homeostatic balance of the HPA axis 10 (Fig. 1). While these are the primary targets of GCs, virtually every neuron in the brain has receptors for these hormones. Thus, GCs are an important enabler of normal brain function in addition to their role in HPA axis function.Corticosterone (CORT), the primary GC in the rat, is the ligand for the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), steroid hormone receptors that function as transcription factors and regulate neuronal gene transcription. GR and MR pretend different affinities for CORT in the brain. GRs are express ubiquitously in the brain, and are most concentrated in the CRH neurons of the PVN and ACTH releasing neurons in the anterior pituitary and also in the HPC 10. The highest expression of MRs in the brain is in the HPC, though they are expressed in other forebrain regions 10. MRs are saturated by modest levels of CORT, such as those generated duri ng circadian oscillations, and thus mediate daily changes in HPA axis activity. On the other hand, GRs are saturated by more essential levels of CORT, such as those seen following a stressful experience, and mediate negative feedback to restore homeostasis 12,10.Time Course of the Acute Stress Response (Figure 2 rise and fall of CORT)The typical stress response begins within a very short period of time. The SNS response dos more rapidly than the HPA axis response, due to direct neurotransmitter release on target tissues vs. indirect hormonal release into the circulation, respectively. Within seconds, the post-ganglionic neurons of the SNS release norepinephrine and the adrenal medulla releases epinephrine into circulation. Also within seconds, CRH is released from the PVN of the hypothalamus, followed quickly by the release of ACTH into fringy circulation from the anterior pituitary 13. Within 3-5 minutes, the adrenal cortex releases CORT into the circulation, by which time mea sure plasma ACTH levels are reached. While peak levels of GCs vary match to stressor type and duration, circulating CORT levels typically reach peak levels15-30 minutes afterward stressor initiation 14. At this time ACTH levels create also returned to service line 14. However, the effects of GCs on target tissues do not occur until about an hour after stressor initiation 13. After peak CORT levels are reached, negative feedback mechanisms shut calibrate further CORT secretion so that circulating CORT levels recover to near baseline levels within 60-120 minutes after stressor initiation 15,14. The time required to reach baseline levels also varies depending on stressor type and duration. Circulating levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine follow a similar trajectory, but with more rapid increases and decreases 16.Biological RhythmsPlasma levels of CORT are not static, but follow a circadian rhythm that is closely aligned with the stay-wake cycles. In both humans and rodents, pl asma GCs rise as the sleep cycle (inactive phase) ends and peaks upon waking up. From this peak, GC levels fall during the active phase and eventually reach the circadian trough or nadir (the lowest point in the cycle) 17,18. However, as nocturnal animals, the active phase for rodents is during the dark period and the inactive phase occurs during the light period. Thus, in laboratory animals, peak CORT levels are found middling after the lights are turned off and nadir CORT levels are measured when the lights are turned on. In addition, within this circadian rhythm GCs are released in an ultradian (cycles repeated within the 24 hour period) pulsatile pattern which rises and falls according to the circadian rhythm 19. Basal levels of CORT measured in rats can typically enjoin from 0-200 ng/mL in gravid male person rats or 100-500 ng/mL in adult female rats 18. In response to acute stressors, peak stress levels of CORT generally range from 200-600 ng/mL in adult male rats and 500-1 000 ng/mL in adult female rats. Both mean and peak stress levels of CORT can vary depending on the sampling time within the circadian rhythm. excite, Age and Strain DifferencesAs noted above, sex differences in HPA axis activity and responses to acute stressors are well documented. Female rodents exhibit higher baseborn and stress induced levels of both ACTH and CORT 20,21. Sex differences in CORT secretion are primarily mediated by estrogen, with higher levels of ACTH and CORT found during proestrus, when circulating levels of estrogen are high 20,18. Much of the research on gonadal steroid regulation of the HPA axis suggests that estrogen has excitatory effects while androgens have inhibitory effects 22-26. In addition, females have higher levels of corticoid binding globulin (CBG), which partially buffers the higher levels of CORT 27,24. CBG binds circulating CORT and renders it biologically inactive 28,29. However, CBG levels take several hours to increase after exposure to a stressor, resulting in higher levels of biologically active CORT in females in response to stressors 30.Acute stress responses can also vary across the lifespan. After birth, from day 2 to 14, rats experience a stress hyporesponsive period (SHRP) wherein circulating basal CORT remain very low and neonatal pups fail to show an elevation in CORT in response to stress or ACTH administration31-33. Adolescence is the next developmental epoch, which includes three stages pre-pubescence/early adolescence (21-34 days), mid-adolescence (34-46 days) and late adolescence (46-59 days) 34,35. During early adolescence, rats exhibit an exaggerated HPA axis response to both acute and inveterate stress compared to adults 36,37. In addition, sex differences in HPA axis function mature over the stripling period 38,39. The acute stress response has also been investigated in ripening animals, though a great deal of heterogeneity, particularly with respect to the aging model has been found 40. Howeve r, the general consensus, based on earlier studies, is that antique animals exhibit elevated baseline (or basal) CORT and a prolonged stress-induced elevation in CORT release, possibly due to decreased GR-mediated negative feedback 41,42. It should also be noted that aging is associated with increased variability in the acute stress response 40. Sex differences in acute HPA axis responses are not frequently examined in aged rats. However, since estrogen decreases with age, and males demonstrate increased basal CORT, it would be expected that sex differences would become less robust 43,44Robust chance variable quantity differences in both basal and peak stress levels of CORT also exist. In general, the in bred Fischer 344 (F344) strain of rats secrete higher levels of both basal and stress induced CORT levels compared to both the inbred Lewis (LEW) strain and the outbred Sprague Dawley (SD) strain (Dhabar 1993). Interestingly, both F344 and SD rats show increased basal CORT levels at the end of the inactive period, while LEW rats did not show a robust circadian rhythm (Dhabar 1993). As mentioned above, strain differences can also interact with age differences to further complicate the picture of a normal HPA axis stress response across the lifespan.CHRONIC STRESSExposure to inveterate stress can result in long term elevations in GCs and has been shown to alter the structure and function of the brain regions involved in regulating the HPA axis as well as learning and memory and numerous other behaviors 7. Two general responses in HPA axis function occur as a result of continuing stress, namely habituation and sensitization. Habituation typically occurs following repeated exposure to the same (homotypic) mild stressor, with the magnitude of the HPA axis response (i.e. CORT secretion) diminishing with each subsequent exposure to the stressor 45,46. On the other hand, repeated exposure to different (heterotypic) and unpredictable stressors can diminish the hab ituation of the HPA axis response 47-49. Interestingly, both chronic homotypic and heterotypic unpredictable stressors cause sensitization of the HPA axis response to a novel stressor, resulting in increased ACTH and CORT secretion 45,48.The most frequently studied brain regions that are vulnerable to chronic stress are the HPC, amygdala (AMG) and PFC 50. In both the HPC and PFC, chronic easiness stress results in dendritic atrophy and decreased GR expression, which facilitates decreased HPA axis feedback and impaired memory 51-54,7. In addition, chronic stress can also lead to altered hippocampal excitability, neurochemistry and neurogenesis (refs from Conrad 2010 review if needed?). On the other hand, chronic stress causes dendritic hypertrophy and increased CRH expression in the AMG as well as dendritic hypertrophy in the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), which facilitate HPA axis excitability and anxiety and habitual behavior, respectively 7,55-58.Sex, Age and Strain DifferencesSex differences in response to chronic stress exposure are less frequently examined. The above-mentioned effects are well documented in males. However, chronic stress does not appear to have the same effects in females. For example, females appear to be resilient against chronic stress induced dendritic atrophy in the HPC and spacial memory impairments 59-63. In the PFC, females exhibit dendritic hypertrophy, whereas males demonstrate dendritic atrophy in response to repeated stress exposure 64. In addition, chronic stress is associated with sex-specific PFC-mediated behavioral effects. inveterateally stressed males show impairments in recall of fear extinction, possibly reflecting decreased behavioral flexibility 65-67. However, chronically stressed females demonstrate impaired memory for the acquisition of fear conditioning, which is more dependent on the AMG 68-70. Interestingly, males show dendritic hypertrophy and increased activation of the AMG and an associated increase in the a cquisition of fear conditioning following chronic stress 67. Thus, in females, chronic stress causes more moderate morphological and behavioral outcomes that may be related to sex-specific changes in AMG function.Chronic stress also has differential effects across the lifespan. In general, earlier exposure to chronic stress (i.e. prenatal and neonatal) have protracted and irreversible effects compared to adult chronic stress. Exposing pregnant rat dams to chronic stress increases circulating CORT which crosses through the placenta and reaches the developing fetus to alter brain development and HPA axis activity 71. The long-term effects of prenatal stress include increased basal and stress induced CORT secretion as well as learning impairments, increased anxiety- and depression-like behaviors and sensitivity to drugs of abuse 72,73. Postnatal stress is typically induced by disrupting the maternal-pup interactions (i.e., maternal separation or daily discourse of pups). The long-term effects of early postnatal stress include altered anxiety-like behavior and stress-induced HPA axis activity in adulthood though the direction of these effects are varied and highly dependent on the age of the pup, as well as the type and duration of the manipulations 72,74,75. Chronic adolescent stress can result in enduring effects in adulthood, including decreased hippocampal volume, impaired spatial learning, and increased anxiety-like behavior adulthood 76-79. However, there is less evidence for adolescent stress exposure to result in depressive behaviors in adulthood 80,81. Studies of long lasting effects of adolescent stress exposure on HPA axis function are mixed, while most report no effect on basal or stress-induced CORT or ACTH secretion, some studies find increased basal and stress induced CORT secretion in adulthood 82,78,76,83,84. Chronic stress exposure during adolescence can lead to long term behavioral and neuroendocrine effects, depending on the timing of exposure , the sex of the animal and the type of stressors used 82,84,85. In aged animals, chronic stress has differential effects compared to young or middle-aged adult rats. For example, following 3 weeks of chronic restraint stress in aged males and females, stress-induced sex differences were no longer evident on spatial and non-spatial memory tasks and chronic stress either facilitated or did not impair performance in aged male rats 86,87. In addition, in aged animals sex-specific effects of chronic stress are reversed 86,87. Furthermore, chronic stress in aged rats may potentiate stress-induced neurotoxicity, particularly in the HPC 72,88.Strain differences are also noted in the effects of chronic stress. Interestingly, and in line with acute stress strain differences, the inbred F344 strain do not demonstrate habituation of the plasma CORT response to chronic stress with a repeated homotypic stressor, while SD and LEW rat strains do 46. F344, but not SD and LEW, rats also exhibit adre nal gland hypertrophy after 3 sessions of restraint over 10 days 46. F344 rats also exhibit a lack of HPA axis habituation following 14 days of restraint compared to SD rats 89. Consistent with these findings, robust differences between SD and LEW rats were not found in either male or female rats in HPA axis response to an acute stressor after chronic exposure to unpredictable heteroptyic stressors 90.TYPES OF STRESSORSAcute Stressors (Figure 3 Equipment/Stressors)In addition to being a threat against homeostasis, stressors can be described as any event or environment that is novel, unpredictable, poses a threat to well-being or ego, or creates a sense of loss of control (Lupien 2007). Acute stressors are stressors which occur on a single occasion with varying durations. Typically acute stressors last anywhere from 5 minutes to upwards of 6 hours, but in general for a period of time less than 24 hours. Acute stressors of longer durations are sometimes referred to as single prolonged stressors. Essentially the occasion of an acute stressor is for the experimental pillow slip to mount a single stress response, or activation of the HPA axis. There are many different types of stressors and categorization of these stressors is move by many, though not all stress researchers agree. Stressors can vary in the type of perceived stress such as physical or psychological (or some combination of the two) as well as intensity and duration. Depending on the type of stressor used, differential effects on the HPA axis and SNS responses will occur. visible stressors are stressors that are predominantly identified or perceived through the senses or involuntary (autonomic) mechanisms. Examples of physical stressors include extreme temperatures, loud noise, chemical exposure, extreme activity, metabolic or immune system disruptions, release and pain. The most extreme physical stressors are necessarily limited to short durations due to discomfort. Many physical stressors can be administered in multiple ways or in combination with other stressors. To manipulate temperature, rodent subjects can be place in a standard cold room (4-6C) or a hot room (30-40C) or in cold (18-20C) or hot water (25-35C) as part of a forced swim stressor (forced exercise) 91-93. Loud noises stressors are most effective at a range of 90-110 dB 94. Chemical stressors include exposure to ether vapors, hypoxic conditions, and injection of formalin or other noxious substances 93,95. Stressors involving extreme activity include forced swim and on the opposite end of the spectrum, immobilization, wherein the subject is splayed out on a board with all its limbs and head secured to prevent movement. Metabolic disruptions can include fasting or food restriction, injections of insulin to induce hypoglycemia or lipopolysaccharide to induce an immune reaction. Hemorrhage or hypovolemia is induced by removing a percentage of blood volume with a moderate hemorrhage consisting of removal of 20% e stimated blood volume 96. Finally, pain can be induced via numerous methods. Frequently used stressors include tail pinch with clothespins or hemostats. Another common stressor associated with pain is mild (Psychological stressors are perceived threats against homeostasis or well-being. Important qualities of psychological stressors include loss of control, unpredictability and novelty. Identification of psychological stressors can also be experience or species dependent, in that the anticipation of the event itself can be a stressor, even in the absence of the authentic event. Psychological stressors may also induce fear, anxiety or other behavioral changes. The effectiveness of psychological stressors is primarily under the control of limbic brain regions such as the HPC, AMG and PFC 7. Several types of psychological stressors are used, including those that activate innate and species-specific behaviors and fear, inescapable/uncontrollable stressors, and tender stressors. Activa tion of innate fear (based on a threat to safety/survival) in rodents can be accomplished with exposure to a predator (i.e. a cat or snake) or to a novel or unfamiliar environments particularly those with are open and brightly lit (i.e. open field or elevated plus maze). Inescapable and uncontrollable stressors include inescapable foot or tail shock, forced swim and restraint. Rodent restraint is the most frequently used and well-documented stressor. It can also be combined with other physical stressors such as being placed in a rotating platform or in combination with tail pinch. Interestingly, even animal handling can be categorized as this type a stressor.Social stressors make up their own entire subcategory. Many researchers hope that social stressors are the most translationally relevant because the primary source of stress in humans comes from social interactions, expectations and even trauma. Rats are by nature social animals, but too much or too little can elicit a stress r esponse. Two of the least effortful social stressors are isolation housing and high density housing (i.e. crowding). Interestingly males show a greater stress response to crowding while females show a greater stress response to single (i.e. isolation) housing 98. A popular social stressor is social defeat, utilizing the resident intruder paradigm. This paradigm consists of using aggressive male rats (i.e. retired breeders or reared in isolation without handling) as the resident rat. The experimental rat (i.e. the one which will mount a stress response) is the intruder and is placed in the home coop of the resident rat. Typically the rats are allowed contact with each other until the intruder demonstrates defeat behaviors (i.e. submissive supine posturing). In one variety of this paradigm, the intruder remains in the home detain of the resident rat but is separated, and therefore protected from physical harm, by a wire interlace enclosure 99,100. A novel socially based stressor t hat is less labor intensive is to place a male rat in the dirty cage of another male rat. Thus the male rat is in an inescapable territory of another male rat, without physical contact 101.Chronic Stress ParadigmsChronic stress is prolonged stress that typically occurs for at least 5 days, typically 1-3 weeks and sometimes up to 6 weeks or more. Many different types of chronic stress paradigms can be used, depending on the desired outcome measures. An additional variable to consider with chronic stress paradigms is the likelihood of habituation of the stress response over time, as mentioned above. Examples of chronic stress paradigms include chronic restraint, chronic mild stress, chronic unpredictable stress, chronic variable stress, chronic social stress, and chronic intermittent stress.Chronic restraint stress and chronic mild stress have historically been the most frequently used chronic stress paradigms. Interestingly, these paradigms have different phenotypic outcomes. Chronic restraint stress is frequently carried out with daily 6 hour restraint sessions for 3 weeks (Conrad XXXX). However, because chronic restraint stress is repeated exposure to a single homotypic stressor, habituation of the stress response after the first few days likely occurs as evidenced by blunted CORT and ACTH release in response to restraint following completion of the chronic restraint paradigm 102,103. This paradigm is well characterized with regard to spatial learning and memory deficits as well as altered dendritic morphology, particularly dendritic retraction in the hippocampus 104. Interestingly, spontaneous recovery of both altered dendritic morphology and spatial learning and memory deficits has been observed 105. Chronic restraint stress also alters anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors, impairs response inhibition, facilitates fear learning and reduces motive for food reward 106-108,53Chronic mild stress (CMS) is typically used to induce an anhedonic (i.e. depressive -like) phenotype 109. This paradigm typically involves exposure of the subjects to one mild stressor a day, typically for 6-8 weeks 109,110. Stressors are administered on a set weekly schedule and include wet bedding, cage tilt, mild footshock, alterations in the light-dark cycle, food/water deprivation and cage changes 109,110. Anhedonic effects of CMS, which can last up to 3 months, include decreased sucrose consumption, increased threshold for intracranial self-stimulation and decreased locomotor activity in the absence an anxiety-like phenotype 109. Chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) is essentially an iteration of CMS, which lasts for a shorter period of time (2 weeks) and presents mild to moderate stressors once a day in a more randomized order and time of day 111,112. Depressive-like phenotypes are seen after CUS exposure in addition to anxiety-like phenotypes and cognitive deficits 112,91. Chronic variable stress (CVS) is yet another more severe iteration of a repeated admini stration of heterotypic stressors. More recently, CVS paradigms have differentiated themselves from CMS paradig